Dr. Diane Howard's Publications, Presentations 

 Empowering Students of Color
By Involvement in Ethnic
Distance Communication Research
 

Copyright © 2001
Diane Howard, Ph.D.


Department of Communication and Dramatic Arts
University of Mary Hardin-Baylor

Monograph for Ethnic Studies Conference
(Joint National Conference-
National Association of African American Studies,
National Association of Hispanic and Latino Studies,
National Association of Native American Studies,
International Association of Asian Studies)
Feb. 12-17, 2001

By Diane Howard, Ph.D.
Collaborator- Darien Moore, B.A., B.B.A.

Evidence supports the idea that performing autobiography may provide a role modeling effect, which may influence achievement motivation in audience members. This effect may be particularly significant in marginalized (females and minorities) individuals and groups. Since 1998 my communication students, alumni, and I have been involved in presenting a series of African American performances over the Bell County Educational Technology Network's videoconferencing system in a collaborative project with Dr. Stan Dyer, who has been teaching African America history at Central Texas College. I designed this performance research project to study the relationship of African American role models (RMs) presented over videoconferencing and locus of control (LC) in audience members in Dr. Dyer's African American history classes. (This research has been presented in detail in my book, Autobiographical Writing and Performing: An Introductory, Contemporary Guide to Process and Research in Speech Performance, which was published by McGraw-Hill in 1999).  Evidence from this research study suggests that there is a relationship between LC in subjects and their identification of RMs. Further, evidence suggests that RMs empower those who observe and identify with them and may encourage achievement motivation in the observers (Howard, 1996, 1999).

Prior to 1998 I was involved from fall 1992 through spring 1995 in ethnographic research that looked at the years from 1886-1972, during the female-only days of the University of Mary Hardin-Baylor (UMHB). The results of this earlier research have informed my research from '98 to the present. I began by investigating students from the female-only days by reading published works by former students and faculty on the female history of the college. Further, I surveyed the entire Class of 1945, collected oral histories from female leaders from the female days of the school, and audio-taped and transcribed narration from two former students, who had lived near the institution and studied its history for 60 years. Patterns of characteristics emerged from these projects. One factor, which emerged from this ethnographic research, was the strong influence of female role modeling, especially that of faculty RM (Howard, 1996).

Patterns of characteristics from the ethnographic, historical studies at UMHB from fall '92 through spring '95 suggested that female students with female RM's had ILC. Students from the college's female days reported that events in their lives were contingent on their own behavior, choices, actions, and personal characteristics, suggesting ILC. Taking responsibility for their lives, students from the female days typically moved into careers, for which they had deliberately prepared themselves, suggesting career salience (Howard, 1996).

Through reading writings, interviewing, and surveying students of female days at this university, I concluded that women educated at UMHB before the 70’s, in general, seemed to have had both ILC and female RMs. Two basic questions emerged from this historical research. First, is there a relationship between LC in female college students' and their identification of female RMs? Secondly, does LC in female college students tend to become increasingly more internal when they have female RMs? The two initial questions, which emerged from the '92-'95 ethnographic, historical projects, generated research questions. I conducted another research project from '94-'96. This was a study of first-year, female, college students and their identification of female staff or faculty RMs at then coeducational UMHB. Measurement used an internal-external locus of control scale and a questionnaire, related to the students' identification of RMs (Howard, 1996).

The first purpose of this study was to investigate LC as a changeable variable in first-year, female, coed college students. The second purpose of the project was to investigate the relationship of ILC between first-year, female, college students and identification of female RMs. This study was built on a review of literature from relevant fields. I studied literature that related to the issues of LC in females and the effects of female modeling in education, sociology, psychology, and industry. Studies in these areas have indicated that ILC, self-esteem, career salience, and achievement in females have been positively related to the presence of female RMs (Howard, 1996).

In educational literature, there have been two leading theories and many research projects directly pertinent to this study. Weiner has provided a theory of attribution, and Bandura has provided a theory of observational learning from models(Weiner, 1986 & Bandura, 1969). Studies of many educational researchers have supported the ideas that having female RMs can influence professional choices, career salience, academic and professional success, self-esteem, and attitudes toward women, in both female students and in female professionals. Further, research has provided evidence of LC as a significant factor in achievement motivation.

Weiner has asserted that people attribute their successes and failures to internal or external reinforcers. An "internal person" attributes successes and failures to her ability or to her effort. An "internal person" attributes her performance to causes for which she assumes personal responsibility. An "external person" attributes her performance to factors for which she has no responsibility and over which she has no control. If she fails, the "external person" assumes the task was too difficult or she was unlucky (or both). If the "external person" succeeds, she attributes her success to the easiness of the task or to luck.(Weiner, 1986).

Bandura's theory of observational learning has concerned learning from models (Bandura, 1969).  He has asserted that many behaviors are acquired through observing and imitating other people. He has contended that new patterns of behavior are learned through observing behavior without the observer overtly responding or receiving any reinforcements in the exposure setting. He has written that modeling influences can stimulate innovative behavior (Bandura, 1977). He has argued that observers watch models performing responses, which embody a certain principle. He believes that observers behave later in a way stylistically similar to the model's behavior, even though the observer is not mimicking the model's specific responses, because the observer has applied what she has learned from the model to a new, but related, situation (Bandura, 1977).

Bandura and Walters have asserted that teachers, as RMs, may have three types of effects on students. The first is the "modeling effect," which involves the student's direct imitation of the model's behavior. The second is the "disinhibitory effect," which involves the student's observing the consequences of the model's actions and consequently choosing behavior in opposition, if the model's observed consequences were undesirable. For example, when female faculty members are regarded with low esteem by school administrators and are not treated as equals, the effect may be to inhibit female students' aspirations toward the teaching profession. The third modeling effect is the "eliciting effect," which involves the increased susceptibility in a student to the influence of the RM. For example, a female teacher who holds high expectations for female students' achievement may have an increased probability of influencing the female students' performance through cues, which elicit a positive response in the students (Bandura and Walters, 1963).

Studies have provided evidence that same-sex role modeling may be especially important for female students. Studies have presented evidence of a positive relationship between same sex-role modeling and academic achievement. Studies of many educational researchers have supported the ideas that female RMs affect professional choices, career salience, academic and professional success, self-esteem, and attitudes toward women in female students and in female professionals. Older women have seemed important as RMs in the biographies of successful women. (eg., Douvan, 1976) The influence of crucial older women RMs has been prominent in the biographies of women successful in politics, writing, and academics. Douvan ( 1976) has suggested two important reasons why eastern women's colleges have produced a disproportionate number of women who achieve prominent positions in the arts, business, politics and other professional fields. She has contended that a serious and intense intellectual climate has existed at women's colleges, a climate that has been described by a number of observers. That climate has provided another reason for the disproportionate number of achieving women at women's colleges, that of modeling.

Walum has found in a study of female Ph.D.s that they have strongly identified with a female RM. In some cases it has been a grandmother, aunt, or teacher. Nearly all of the women have spoken with passion concerning the importance these models had in motivating them. Walum has asked her subjects about books they remember from childhood. Her subjects have alluded to books about famous women and spoken of their identification with the heroines in these books. In a further study of undergraduate women, Walum has found a significant relationship between career aspirations and memories of heroines from books read in childhood (Douvan, 1976; L. R. Walum, personal communication, 1974). Tidball has reported from her studies that female RMs enhance the career salience of female college students and has concluded that women's colleges produce twice as many achieving women as do coed colleges (Tidball, 1973, 1976, 1980, 1985, 1986). Walker's research has supported the idea that a positive relationship exists between female RMs and female students' self-esteem and career salience, especially during the first year of college. An important body of educational theories and research exists which has supported the idea that a positive relationship exists between students' career choices, academic and professional success, and attitudes toward women and female professionals (Walker, 1984, 1987, 1990).

Further, educational literature presents the relationship of academic achievement to the construct of LC. Strain has studied LC as a predictor variable related to academic persistence and achievement motivation. She has asserted that other educational researchers predict that… students with ILC will persist longer in college. Research findings, accumulated over the last 20 years, have affirmed the importance of LC, as a factor in the motivation of students. Strain has contended, however, that although factors of intrinsic motivation are a basis for students' persistence behavior, only one concrete, measurable motivational factor, that of LC, has been identified in research. Strain has asserted that the construct of LC has been particularly valuable in studying academic persistence and achievement motivation (Strain, 1993).  Research conducted at multiple institutions with large numbers of students, has reported findings that LC is related to persistence. Studies have found that students who have been more internal persisted at higher rates. These studies have contributed major findings related to LC as a factor in persistence. These studies have defined an aspect of weak motivation and identified a motivational factor, which has been amenable to intervention. Motivation has described forces that energize a person and direct activity; therefore, persistence has been believed to be a behavioral pattern that forms a basis for inferences about motivation. Motivational theory has aimed to account for changes from one activity to another. Intrinsic motivation has related to the character of the motivation that is described by goal commitment. Thus, principles of motivational theory have assisted in identifying factors of motivation that may be basic to student persistence (Strain, 1993).

Educational research has provided evidence of LC as a significant factor in achievement motivation. Evidence of LC as predictive of academic persistence and role modeling as effectual of academic success has also found in educational literature. Further, there has been evidence that role modeling by female professionals affects self-esteem, attitudes toward women, professional choices, career salience and professional success in female students (Howard, 1996).

Studies in the field of psychology have provided evidence of LC as a changeable variable, which can be affected by modeling. Studies in this field also have addressed the relationship of modeling to change, the relationship of models to LC, the relationship of investigation of knowledge (cognitive inquiry) to LC, and the relationship of LC in women to their competitors. Studies in counseling psychology have investigated the use of models to motivate change by observational learning. Modeling has been found positively related to motivation to change in counselees in many counseling situations (Howard, 1996).

Numerous studies in the field of psychology have investigated ILC as a changeable variable and as a variable, which can be affected by modeling. Literature in the field of psychology has provided evidence of LC as a changeable variable, of the positive relationship of role models to LC, of the positive relationship of cognitive inquiry to LC, of the positive relationship of RMs to change, and of a more positive relationship of ILC in women in relationship with other women than with men (Howard, 1996).

Many studies in the field of sociology have also presented evidence concerning the effect of the presence or absence of RMs on female college students. Rossi has supported the idea of the positive effect of female RMs on female college students. Rossi has addressed the issues of stereotypes and social climate that discourage female professional, non-traditional achievement by discouraging females to be independent thinkers. She has concluded that women in non-traditional professions are more likely to have had female, professional RMs (Rossi, 1965).

Fox’s studies have supported the idea that same-gender RMs affect undergraduate choice of major. Basow and Howe have studied RM influence in college students and have given an overview of related literature on the subject.

…a number of studies have demonstrated the importance…influence of female RMs on the career development of women at various ages and educational levels. Mothers have been found to be particularly important in influencing their daughters' career orientations…attitudes (Almquist & Angrist, 1971; Baruch, 1972, Tangri, 1972). Exposure to other female RMs through work experiences has been found to be influential to the career-oriented college women studied by Astin,…as well as Almquist and Angrist (1971) and O'Donnell and Anderson (1978). Female teachers and college faculty have also been found to be important influences on female students in regard to achievement and success, (Tidball, 1973), goals and values (Douvan, 1976), and subsequent professional achievement…productivity... (Goldstein, 1979). (Basow & Howe, 1980: 559-560)

Based on their review of literature, Basow and Howe have predicted that women are particularly influenced by female RMs in making important life decisions. Basow and Howe have concluded from their study of college students that "female models were particularly important for female college students in their career decisions, especially mothers and female teachers" (Basow & Howe, 1980).

Industry has also presented evidence concerning the positive relationship of female RMs to female college students' educational and professional choices and attainments. In April 1995, The Industrial and Labor Relations Review published a series of papers entitled "Symposium: Role Models in Education." Three papers dealt with the importance of female faculty as RMs in higher education. Literature in education, sociology, psychology, and industry has pointed toward the positive relationship of LC in females and female RMs. Studies in these areas have indicated that ILC, self-esteem, career salience, and achievement in females is positively related to the presence of female RMs (Howard, 1996).

The basic questions (1. Is LC in female college students a changeable variable? 2. Does female college students' LC tend to become increasingly more internal when they are influenced by female RMs?), which emerged from
my 1992-1995 UMHB, historical study, guided the development of my research questions for   '94-'96 research
(Howard, 1996). These questions included the following: 1. Will first-year female students who identify for themselves a female faculty or staff RM measure as having a stronger ILC than first-year female students at UMHB who do not claim to have a female faculty or staff RM (NM) 2. Would the same subjects in the RM group and in the NM group tested in May, at the end of school year, show a difference in, or a change of direction of LC? 3. If so, what would be the difference in, or change of direction of LC in the RM and NM groups from the beginning of the school year to the end of the school year? 4.What would be the relationship between identification of RMs and the direction of change of LC over the course of one school year (Howard, 1996)?

To answer these questions, I developed a study to investigate the relationship of LC in first-year, coed female students who had identified a staff or faculty RM, or not, at the UMHB. The population of first-year, female students was selected because evidence suggested that the influence of role models is greater at earlier stages in a college student's educational career than at later stages. (Howard, 1996) In this study of first-year female, coed UMHB students, in mid-October, during the fall semesters of '94-'95, two instruments were used in pre-tests: Rotter's Internal-External Locus of Control Scale (Rotter 1966) and a questionnaire I designed. Subjects used this questionnaire to identify whether or not they had RMs and to describe their perceptions of the RM's attributes. The term role model was defined as an individual who had "skills or qualities" that the student admired and wished "to emulate" (Anderson & Ramsey, 1990:183).

This study investigated LC as a changeable variable in first-year, female, coed, UMHB students. Further, it investigated the relationship between LC in these subjects and their identification, or not, of female, faculty/staff, RMs. (Howard, 1996) This study presented evidence that suggested that subjects who identified RMs had stronger ILC, than the subjects who did not identify RMs. Further, it suggested that LC was a changeable variable and that ILC increased over the first year of college in the RM group (positive effect). Finally, it suggested that ILC decreased over the first year of college in the NM (negative effect). Thus, the research suggested a factor, which may strengthen ILC in first-year, female, coed college students (Howard, 1996).

In 1998 I designed a series of African American performances for the BellNet videoconferencing system with
Dr. Stan Dyer, who taught African American history at Central Texas College. Guided by my previous research, I designed a new, research project related to the BellNet performances. This work was designed to study the relationship of African American role models presented over videoconferencing and LC in audience members in Dr. Dyer’s African American history classes. I was also guided by my research by my review of literature, related to African American, college students and RMs (Howard, 1999).

In the April 1995 issue of The Industrial and Labor Relations Review, Ehrenberg presented an overview and review of the papers published in the edition. He asserted that policies abound to increase the number of under-represented faculty in American schools and universities. These policies have been developed to provide employment for representatives of groups who have historically suffered discrimination. They have been designed, furthermore, to provide RMs for minority students to enhance their educational performances. He stated that it is generally believed that increasing the proportion of minority teachers leads to improvements in minority academic performance and retention. Related to increasing minority faculty, he projected the following hoped-for results: an increase in the number of minority faculty at predominantly white institutions will improve the attractiveness of these schools to minority students, an increase in the minority faculty will improve the possibility of minority students graduating, and an increase in the minority faculty populations will stimulate the flow of minority students into higher education and into academic careers. (Ehrenberg, 1995)

In this same edition in their paper on the effects of role modeling, "Do Teachers’ Race, Gender, and Ethnicity Matter," Ehrenberg, Goldhaber & Brewer reported their findings concerning the influence of teachers’ race, gender, and ethnicity on their subjective evaluations of their students. (Ehrenberg et al, 1995) Ehrenberg presented the findings of Rothstein and himself that attendance at historical, black colleges and universities (HBCUs) substantially increases the probability that African American, college students would graduate within seven years of starting college. This may be due to the greater likelihood of teachers and students being of the same race in HBCUs. (Ehrenberg & Rothstein, 1995) In the same issue, in the role modeling symposium paper, "The Effect of Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities on Future Wages of Black Students," Constantine presented her findings that African American students who attend HBCUs receive higher earnings than they do if they attend non-HBCUs, in some cases approximately 35% more. Again this may be due to the greater availability of RMs of the same race as the students. (Constantine, 1995)

Based on evidence, which was directly and indirectly related, in '98 I developed a research study, which was an extension of my 90’s research, to involve college African American history students. (Tools for replication of this study are provided in my 1999 book and 1996 dissertation.) Since '98 African American performers of African American autobiographies have been performing for viewing audiences, which consist mostly of African American, college history students, via videoconference equipment. The sample population, which is the viewing audience, is reasonably homogeneous. The basic difference in the subjects of the sample is whether or not they identify RMs. There is no controlled treatment. The comparison groups are those subjects who identify RMs or not
(Howard, 1999).

African American performers have been selected to perform historic RM characters from African American history. All performers have been identified as RMs according to their demonstration of character qualities, which are outlined on the RM questionnaire. They have been RMs in themselves and perform, from African American history, RMs who have displayed character qualities listed on the RM questionnaire. The historic characters performed have been African Americans leaders, who have overcome adversity in American history. The presenters have been performing and participating in discussions with the college student audiences following the performances. Discussion questions, asked by research facilitators from the delivery and receiving sites, have been related to the characteristics identified on the RM questionnaire. All subjects in the three semesters of the study have been pre-tested and post-tested with a LC scale and with the questionnaire (Howard, 1999).

Preliminary results have supported the hypothesis that LC is a changeable variable. This study also, like the earlier research projects, has presented evidence that has suggested that subjects who identify RMs have stronger ILC than the subjects who do not identify RMs. As to direction and degree of change in LC in the RM group and in the NM group, there has been difference in the '98-the present and '92-'95 studies.

In the '92-'95 research, ILC increased over the first year of college in the RM group (positive effect) and decreased over the first year of college in the NM group (negative effect). This study provided statistically significant evidence of the relationship of RMs and ILC in first-year, female, coed college students (Howard, 1996). However, in the '98-present research with female and male students in co-ed, community, college, African American, history classes using video-conferencing, the same positive effect in the RM group and the negative effect in the NM group has been not evident. It may be significant that there has been difference in the subjects in the '92-'95 and '98-present studies and that the subjects in the earlier research were studied longer, than the subjects in the later research were studied. The subjects in the '92-'92 study were female, freshmen, coed students in a residential four-year college, who were taught in on-site classes. The subjects in the '98-present study have been female and male coed, community, college students in African American history classes, who have been instructed on-site and via video-conferencing. The subjects in the '92-95 were studied over two consecutive semesters. The three groups in the '98-present have been studied each for one semester. Dr. Dyer and I have decided to continue the current research but have decided to study the students in the African American history classes for at least two consecutive semesters, as an initial expansion of the research.

In the '98-present research the evidence is still interesting, although not as statistically significant as that of the earlier study. Of the 83 students studied in the '98-present research, 68 began with role models and 15 began with no role models. Thus, most of the subjects in the '98-present study have had role models from the beginning of the study. (Many of these subjects have been older, commuter, female and male students, rather than the younger, freshmen, largely residential, female students of the '92-'95 study.) As in the results of the '92-'95 research, the ILC in the RM group in the '98-present project increased over the semester (pre mean=13.70 to post mean=13.92). As in the earlier research, the ELC in the RM group decreased over the semester (pre mean=9.19 to post mean=8.9). In the NM group, the subjects scored lower on ILC in the pre-test, than did the RM group. The NM group also scored higher on ELC in the post-test, than did the RM group.

However, in the '98-the present study, although the NM subjects started with a lower ILC in the pre-test (pre mean=12.3) and ended with a ILC (post mean =13.46) than did the RM subjects (pre mean =13.7 and post mean=13.92), their ILC did not go down over the semester, as it had with the female freshmen of the earlier study. Unlike the ILC in the female freshmen of the earlier study, which decreased in the NM group over two semesters, the ILC in the NM group of the '98-present study increased over the one semester, although it was not as high as that of the RM group. Unlike the ELC in the female freshmen of the earlier study, which increased in the NM group over two semesters, the ELC in '98-present subjects in the NM group decreased over the one semester (pre-test mean=10.6 and post-test mean=9.46)), although it did not decrease as much as in the RM group (pre-test mean=9.19 and post-test mean = 9.13) .

Thus, evidence from my three research projects suggests that LC is a changeable variable. These studies have presented evidence that suggests that subjects who identify role models have stronger ILC than the subjects who do not identify RMs. As to direction and degree of change in LC in the RM and NM groups, there has been some difference between the '92-'95 and the '98- to the present study. In the continuing research with coed male and female students in African American history classes, which employ on-site teaching and presentation of role models via distance learning, Dr. Dyer and I intend to study the subjects over more than one semester. They also intend to take a closer look at demographic information to see if there is a difference in results in relationship to age and other demographic factors. Finally, they are considering quantitatively comparing results of using the same curriculum for on-site and distance learning.

Further, we are beginning to study and document on videotape the qualitatively different and empowering humanizing and personalizing elements of videoconference versus on-site performance, communication, and interactions. We have qualitatively studied audience members, from the various sites of distance, educational, videoconference performances, as they ask questions and discuss significant topics with the presenter and facilitators, following the performances. The audience members' questions and the corresponding responses seem to more vulnerable and transparent than would be expected of audience members in on-site discussions. Many of the comments and questions from audience members are very personally significant. It is almost as if the videoconference configuration provides an atmosphere of anonymity, which paradoxically encourages questions and discussions which are personal in nature, not unlike the personal questions and discussions among strangers on radio or television talk shows or in internet chat rooms.

Ethnic videoconference presenters are encouraged in videoconference performances and discussions to communicate human interest and empathy in highly technological communication arenas. They find that performance and communication over videoconference equipment does not de-personalize the performers, the characters performed, or the audience in the communication interaction. Ironically, often the performers, characters, and audience interact more personally over videoconference equipment than in on-site performances. Videoconference role-modeling presentations facilitate growth for the ethnic performer in presenting via cameras, in storytelling techniques, and in interactive communicating skills. They enable the presenters to creatively use audio-visual elements such as props used as visual metaphors, archival photographs, film footage, period music, sound effects, and voice-overs, which serve to further engage audiences. Presenters can then apply these skills to other related venues, such as film, television, and broadcast journalism. Ethnic presenters seem empowered by this videoconference communication, role-modeling research project. They are being encouraged in character development, research, scholarship, artistry, and communication, rendering them as productive and marketable professionals (Howard, 1999).

Evidence from our research suggests role models empower students who identify with them. Maya Angelou spoke of the importance of seeing role models:

In light of the evidence that role modeling can impact the achievement motivation in the observer who chooses to identify with the role model, I have instructed my student writers/performers of autobiography that they should carefully consider the potential role modeling affect of their performances. Dan Sullivan of the Los Angeles Times wrote about solo performances, "…it will be…about someone worth paying attention to, someone who made a difference…leave you feeling somewhat better about our chances for survival…We want to hear about people who thought they could do something…" (Sullivan 1975, in Young 1989:64)

I tell my students, who are writers/performers of autobiography, that they should make careful decisions about their presentations and choices of characters. They should consider the potential power and impact of the characters they present as role models. They should not underestimate the potential, redemptive, edifying power of their performances for social good.

Young, Jordon. Acting Solo, The Art of the One-Man Show. Beverly Hills: Moonstone Press, 1989.